History

Sénégal has been continuously inhabited for more than 150,000 years. The first state, Ghana, appeared on the northern bank of the Sénégal River, expanding slowly towards the South and the West. Different political entities succeeded before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1445. Around the 1510s, the Portuguese occupied an island on the coast, Gorée. Soon the Dutch, the French, and the British followed. The competition was fierce, especially between French and English.

In 1659, the French settled the island of Saint-Louis at the mouth of the Sénégal river, taking an edge over the competition. Moving by pulses, the Europeans eventually colonized the whole country by the late 1880s, the British keeping the lower valley of the Gambia River, today's Republic of The Gambia. Sénégal was a centerpiece of French colonial rule in Africa. It was the oldest colony. Saint-Louis, succeeded in 1902 by Dakar, was the headquarters of French possessions in Black Africa. Finally, it sheltered the most numerous European community in West Africa, while a sizable number of Senegalese enjoyed full French citizenship.

The French left their mark on the landscape of Senegalese cities. The coastal towns particularly, harbored some of the most well preserved colonial buildings in Africa. For example, the monumental neoclassical government house built in Dakar, is the current residence of the President, and is a major tourist attraction. When the country became independent on April 4, 1960, it maintained strong ties with France. Since then, it has enjoyed a remarkable stability and a democratic regime, despite some upheavals and poor economic performances.

Islam/Religions

Islam has reached the region by the end of the 8th century, penetrating from the North to the South. It eventually became the dominant religion. It has profited from the background of local religions. Traditional Africa identified a unique or paramount God associated with some other lesser deities, and believed in the immortality of the soul.

Except the Joola to some extent, Sénégambians did not place emphasis on cult objects. They preferred more spiritual forms of adoration. If we add to that picture some common social features such as polygamy, circumcision, community oriented political economy, etc., we can understand how easily many Sénégalese have converted to Islam. Except the Joola, and the Serer, to a lesser extent, 90% of the Sénégalese population are Muslims. That makes the view of a mosque one of the most pervasive elements in the Sénégalese landscape. It allows also for a more harmonious blending of original elements into a culture dominated by the Wolof. Some 5% of the population is Roman Catholic, mainly in the Southwestern corner, in lower Casamance. The cohabitation is remarkable, and it is not unusual to find both religions in the same village or family. Sénégal was, for some 20 years, perhaps the only overwhelmingly Muslim country to have a practising Catholic as President. Moreover, the current President is Muslim but his wife is a practising Catholic.

Family/Children

I was born in Dakar, the capital and the biggest city of Sénégal. My brothers and sisters grew up in a crowded house among many uncles, aunts, great aunts, grandmas, and cousins. Such extended family relations tends to disappear in today's big towns, but Sénégalese still value them, and they remain prevalent in the countryside.

A family could include a whole village. My father, a Muslim, could have as many as four wives, but never had more than two, and had only one most of the time. In fact, less than a third of the husbands are polygamous. As children, we were at the center of the family life, everybody sharing in the rearing. The youngest were under the close watch of my mother. At school age, my father took over the boys. Very early, I learned to exercise judgment, to take responsibility, and to participate in everyday chores. In exchange, I had unlimited access to a large and diverse group of adults. For instance, my grandma and my great aunt used to tell me tales at night, while my uncles would supervised my homework. Like most of my friends, I had two years at the local Koranic school, learning to read and to memorize the Koran, before going to the elementary school, at the age of 6. There, from the first day, I learned French, the official language of Sénégal. From time to time, during the holidays, I eventually returned to the Koranic school. The same pattern continues today, except that many professional parents send their children to the French pre-school.

Meals

My childhood was organized around meals, games and small chores, usually my family's errands. Rice with fish, sorghum porridge, or grits with milk constituted most of our midday meals. For dinner, I usually had stewed meat in a sauce over sorghum couscous, or fried fish. At breakfast, I usually had herbal tea, milk, and butter on French bread.

In the rural areas, breakfast still consists of leftovers from the previous night's dinner, or porridge (or grits) with milk. Villagers tend to eat more locally grown cereals while city dwellers are accustomed to rice imported from Indochina. The most common dish today in the cities, especially at lunchtime, is cooked rice accompanied by fish and vegetables stewed in a tomato sauce. It is considered to be a national dish, along with chicken marinated in lemon juice over steamed rice, and peanut butter sauce over steamed rice. Peanut and palm oils serve widely for the cooking.

After meals, plain water is the main way to quench one's thirst. But for visitors, there are always soft drinks made out of fruits such as mango, the fruit of a rubber tree, the fruit of the baobab tree, etc., or the industrially made pop drinks. The most common local soft drink is extracted from red sorrel leaves: its appearance explains its nickname, 'Senegalese Red Vine'. After meals, the guests often share kola nuts. Imported from as far as Liberia or Ivory Coast, they have a digestive and stimulant action. Kolas also have some sacred value, as they are usually shared to seal deals, to celebrate weddings or baptisms, to perform divinations, etc.

My preferred time used to be the tea session after most meals. Gathered around a small charcoal burner and a tea pot, the whole family and guests would spend an hour and half to two hours, drinking slowly three small glasses of a sweet hot decoction of Chinese green tea and peppermint leaves, eating salted roasted peanuts, fresh bread, or dried meat. These were precious moments to discuss, to make decisions, to laugh, to share warmth.

Fish/Shore Life

Fish is the main source of protein for Senegalese who are among the biggest fish eaters in the world, perhaps second only to the Japanese. Big and delicate fish is abundant, along with many smaller and less noble species. The 250 mile-long busy coastal line is the main source of fish, before rivers and lakes.

Fishing is the second most common activity after farming, and is currently the most important source of export revenue, supporting a large processing industry. This traditional activity remains one of the most lucrative businesses. Typically, men make the catch with motorized dugout canoes and trailing nets. The sailors and other helpers receive their pay, part in cash, and part in fish. Once on shore, the fishermen sell their catch to wholesalers.

The beach also serves as a market for fresh food. It is also a ferrying point for the ocean going cutters and big canoes that could carry as many as 50 people. Female wholesalers target the daily urban markets, while their male counterparts tend to export to Europe and other African countries. But at the market stalls, women are generally the petty retailers. Most of the production is dried, salted, or smoked under the supervision of women. The preserved fish is sold as far as hundred of miles away in the interior or on the coast. Oysters, shells, shrimps and other seafood follow the same process. The Senegalese gourmet taste recognizes the particular flavors of each product and its origins, as elsewhere some do for wines or cheeses.

Ethnic groups

Sénégal's population is divided among about a dozen ethnic groups, among which five count more than 5% of the population. Most of them being closely associated, many of the customs are common, thus facilitating a peaceful and colorful cohabitation. Intra and inter-ethnic relations are often governed by a joking kinship that creates a high level of tolerance. Inter-ethnic marriages are frequent, especially in the cities.

The largest group, the Wolof, my group, counts for around 44% of the population. They occupy the Northwest and the center. The Hal Pularen (23%) live along the middle valley of the Sénégal river, the upper valley of the Casamance river, and in the center East. The Serer (15%) live on the central coast and the center West. The Joola (5.5%) are in the lower Casamance valley, and, finally, the Manding (4.6%) live in the middle Casamance valley. Some 71% of the population speak the Wolof language, making it the lingua franca, especially in urban areas. All these groups are mostly farmers, fishing and rearing cattle, sheep and goat being secondary activities. Among the Hal Pularen, the Fulani who live in the center East region of Ferlo specialized in cattle raising.

Clothing/Dressing

The elements of culture are so common among the different ethnic groups, that one can hardly distinguish them by their clothing. The basic fabric is local cotton. The printed fabric is worn usually for everyday life. Clothes in dyed or hand woven fabrics are reserved for special occasions. Dyeing is a highly valued skill passed from mother to daughter. The various processes use vegetal chemicals, especially indigo. Weaving skills are transmitted between males within the family. The dress varies depending on the occasion. But the long Muslim gown ('bubu') is usually worn after work. Under the 'bubu,' men wear a short blouse or a shirt over short trousers. They can complete it with a red Fez hat, a grass hat, or a decorated woven cotton one, and leather loafers. Women usually have a head-tie assorted to the design and color of their 'bubu' and a sarong-type wrapper around the waist. They like radiant colors and complicated ties. Sandals or leather loafers complete the apparel. The variety of combinations, the sophistication of designs, and the delicacy of patterns are combined, in such a way as to put the Sénégalese men and women at the fore front of fashion in Black Africa.

Hair dressing is another area of importance. As young as few months old, girls often have braids ornamented with beads and other small objects. A young boy has his head shaved, more or less accordingly to his family's style, however, Muslims generally prefer to keep it bare. Among some groups in the South, even boys have braids. Hair styles vary with age, and with ethnic identity. Another important element of the dress is jewelry in gold, silver, iron, and copper, particularly for big occasions. In fact, the Senegalese tailor, hair dresser, and jeweler are among the most exported talents to Africa, Europe and the Americas.

Sports/Wrestling

Sénégalese fans enjoy some universal sports such as soccer (named 'football' here!), basket ball, checkers, etc. But they still enjoy more two sports considered indigenous or 'national,' canoe racing and wrestling. Canoe racing is among the most colorful events one could watch on various Senegalese shores. The specially designed dugout canoes are painted in bright colors and named after a patron, usually a saint, a local hero, or a notability. In return, the patron provides spiritual protection or money. The races are organized by the size of the rowing team, from 6 to 36 men. They oppose villages or suburbs, and draw large over excited crowds. Regularly, the rowdy fishermen would fight at the end of the event.

My favorite distraction was wrestling. It transcends all ethnic groups and enjoys the status of national sport. It is one of the most common games for children, and any sandy area, often the courtyard, would suffice. It is also the main distraction during the dry season. Usually, villages or suburbs invite each other for tournaments. I used to attend wrestling events at an open air arena near our house.

Hours before the actual event, the inviting beat of the drum and the mellow voice of the singers would alert everyone. In the late afternoon, a crowd would gather forming a circle around a sandy arena. Kids sit in the inner circle while grown-ups stand at the outer. The adults dress in their finest apparel. Betting is common among the crowd. Several bouts take place before the last one pitting two champions against each other. They always represent two different teams fighting for prizes, supremacy and prestige. They usually wear around their waist rich wrappers provided by fiancees or female relatives, the rest of the body remaining naked.

The rules are simple: the winner must make his opponent's knees, shoulder, or back touch the sand. In today's professional money-making business version, blows and slaps are allowed and the prize is big money, while modern stadiums are used to accommodate huge crowds, while significant matches are telecasted. Female singers continue to excite the masculine pride and set the tone for a brutal but loyal confrontation.

Each team occupies a particular place in the circle. A key element is the charmer or magic maker, a blend of a traditional medicine man and magician. His role is to ensure his favorite's victory by protecting him against magic curses, weakening the adversary, and thus, giving him a decisive advantage. Finally, after many prayers and protecting ablutions, medicine water or milk dripping all over their bodies, wearing a hoist of charms, and still under the spell of the band, the two wrestlers face each other under the scrutiny of a referee.

The match begins with the balancing of arms, each of them trying to reach a decisive grasp while moving slowly around the other. After the fight, the victorious side will party all night long and the victor's name will be celebrated by songs.

Dance

Many occasions are pretexts for a dance party: after a wrestling victory, after the harvest, at a baptism, etc. Dance and wrestling parties offer a magnificent opportunity for singles, lovers and friends to meet in their best presentation. Usually, every suburb, village or age group has some kind of organizing committee.

The most important things are the date, the band, and the invited patrons. The date, because some days are not allowed, for instance there are no dances during the farming season. The band is a group of at least 3 professional drummers, ordinarily between 5 and 7. Sometimes, another instrument, African or European joins them. The venue is a sandy area in the middle of the village or at some crossroads in the town. The youngest sit on the sand in the inner circle. Behind them, the women sit on chairs and benches, or stand up. Finally, on the outer circle, men stand up. Boys and females do the clapping, sometimes using wood or metal clappers. The band plays at a corner of the inner circle, facing the most distinguished patrons dressed in their best clothes, and who will give money to them and to the best dancers.

The dancers relay each other almost continuously, in a jubilant disorder. Normally, only women, girls and young boys dance, but men usually dance in the Wolof country. Elsewhere, in the South and the East, religious and age related ceremonies, such as initiations, will offer the opportunity for men and boys in their teens.

Initiation evolves around the circumcision of young males. It is disappearing in the cities where the medical procedure is performed on babies or just before school age. But it is still accomplished in rural areas, particularly in the Southern Joola and Bassari societies. There, it marks the passage of teenagers to adulthood.

The day before the operation, the candidates receive their choice of meal, shave their heads, and are celebrated by the close family. The next day, at dawn, the operation is performed, mostly by the local blacksmith, although more and more, the local nurse or physician is involved. The boys have to suffer without showing their pain as a proof of maturity.

After the ceremony, amid the dancing crowd that celebrates them, the circumcised retreat in the nearby bush or forest for three or four weeks, under the close supervision of older guardians. Their families feed them but close contacts are forbidden. The guardians will teach them how to fight, to hunt, to be patient, to talk, to be a good member of the community, etc. They will inculculate them with local story, the necessary survival tips, self esteem and a strong sense of pride, both as an individual and a member of a society. A strong emphasis is put on how to deal with women and elders. During the seclusion, they suffer abuses from older men and are not allowed to be in contact with a woman.

At the end of the seclusion, the young adults come out, dancing, dressed in their best. They receive gifts and new clothes during an itinerant dance party, visiting each other's family. The feast will last for a few more days. The candidates have become young adults whose next step is to start a family of their own. As a sign, they now participate in the village's elders meetings. Now, they concern themselves only with the activities and affairs of men.

Agriculture/Trees

The small scale family unit dominates Sénégal's agriculture. At peak times, villagers help each other. Every adult member has a piece of farm, but participates in the head of the family's farm.

The tools are simple, from the traditional hoe to the horse drawn engine. Chemical fertilizers, manure and tractors are not used extensively. However, the Serer have invented a very elaborate system where cattle are an integral part. Usually, the farmers burn the wild grass before the rainy season, the ashes being used as fertilizer for a soil often sandy and fragile.

The length and distribution of rains determine two different production zones, North and South of the river Gambia. The average farming season lasts from 3 to 5 months, diminishing from North to South. In the northern part, sorghum, millet, peas, and peanuts are the main crops. In the South, rice, maize, peanuts, cotton and sorghum are grown. Although all of these products can be found on local markets, peanuts and cotton are commercial crops destined to industrial transformation and export. Near the house, women maintain a garden for their family daily needs in vegetables: tomato, okra, herbs, parsley, etc.

A wide variety of fruits are also grown and sold on a dynamic domestic market: pineapples, bananas, mangoes, grapefruits, oranges, and palm kernels from Casamance; mangoes, cashew and mandarines from the center-west; baobab fruit from the center and the North, etc.

The most remarkable tree is the impressive baobab (adansonia digitata): 40-60 ft. tall and up to 30 ft. large. It plays an important role, especially for the Wolof and the Serer. It offers edible pulp, medicine, rope, soap, fertilizer, canoes, etc. In ancient times, its hollow trunk would offer shelter for the traveler or for the runaway in trouble. Along with the tamarind tree, it was also the favorite spot for the genies and the spirits.

The largest trees have a sacred status. Standing alone in the middle of the village, or scattered among smaller trees and shrubs, or else, grouped in dense small clusters, it is one the most common sights in Sénégal.

Architecture

At the center of every village or town, next to the mosque, it is usual to find an open air market where many of the goods needed for daily use are sold. Along with conducting business, the market is also a place to exchange news and to socialize with other people. For instance, it is common to find clusters of people playing African chess or European checkers under the shade of a big tree. In fact, checkers is one of the very few sports in which Senegalese really excel. Around the market place stand the mosque and the houses. The mosque stands alone facing the East. Mud, straw, thatch, and wood are the common building materials. The Sénégalese combine them to produce adobe structures. This architectural style is called 'Sudanese'. Mosques are the most visible elements. Rural houses are usually less durable. Men build the houses, women maintain and decorate them. Professional builders in the cities use bricks and industrial cement. Along the coast, the mixture of European and African architectures produces an interesting landscape. The island of Gorée facing Dakar, is a famous example of this combination, since the 17th century.

The Pink Lake/Lac Rose

At some 20 miles from Dakar, the Pink Lake ('Lac Rose' in French, 'Retba' in Wolof) is a major attraction for tourists. The site is in the middle of the 'garden belt' outside Dakar which produces huge quantities flowers and vegetables for domestic consumption and export. Men farm the gardens, but women control the sale at all level, except the export. The lake is particularly spectacular at dawn and dusk. The unique vibrant pink color is produced by feldspar deposits reflecting the sunlight through the salty waters. The lake is the remains of a fossil sea that once occupied all of Sénégal. For a long time, the local Wolof villagers thought that it was a haunted place at night. However, they never seriously thought about moving, because the salt extracted from the lake is a vital source of income. Women are the salters, men the wholesalers and transporters.

Contributed by:
Mohamed Mbodj
Associate Professor
History Department
Columbia University
New York NY 10027
Tel.: 212-854-2423
Fax: 212-854-4639

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